CHEMISTRY COMMUNITY

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A represents the frequency at which atoms and molecules collide in a way that leads to a reaction. In other words, A is the fraction of molecules that would react if either the activation energy were zero, or if the kinetic energy of all molecules exceeded Ea

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A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction, without being consumed by the reaction. It increases the reaction rate by lowering the activation energy for a reaction.

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The overall reaction rate depends almost entirely on the rate of the slowest step. If the first step is the slowest, and the entire reaction must wait for it, then it is the rate-determining step. he slowest step of a chemical reaction can be determined by setting up a reaction mechanisms. Many reac...

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A rate constant(k) cannot be negative because it is measuring how fast the concentration changes over time so it cannot be a negative value, therefore the tate constant k should always be positive.

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A zero-order reaction is one whose rate is independent of concentration; its differential rate law is rate = k. We refer to these reactions as zero order because we could also write their rate in a form such that the exponent of the reactant in the rate law is 0. Zero-order reactions are comparative...

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Since the energy of the system decreases during an exothermic reaction, the products of the system are more stable than the reactants. We can say that an exothermic reaction is an energetically favorable reaction. If a reaction is exothermic ( H is negative) and the entropy S is positive (more disor...

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Because rate is independent of reactant concentration, a graph of the concentration of any reactant as a function of time is a straight line with a slope of −k. The value of k is negative because the concentration of the reactant decreases with time. For a zero order reaction, as shown in the follow...

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Thermodynamics describes the overall properties, behavior, and equilibrium composition of a system; kinetics describes the rate at which a particular process will occur and the pathway by which it will occur.

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Rate of reaction cannot be negative because it is the change in concentration per unit time. (Rate with minus sign does not make sense). Here in rate of disappearance the minus sign is used to show the the decrease in the reactant rate but rate must be positive to make it positive we use modulus. Th...

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Catalysts lower the activation energy for the reaction. Catalysts increase the forward rate, while reducing the reverse rate. Correct answer: Catalysts increase the forward rate, while reducing the reverse rate.

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The Nernst equation is used to determine the potential of a half-reaction under nonstandard conditions, E=E∘−RTnFln(Q)=E∘−(0.0592 V/n)log(Q) where E∘ is the standard cell potential of the half-reaction, n is the number of electrons transferred in the half- reaction, and Q is the reaction quotient fo...

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Hydrate symbol. The "dot" represents water molecules attached. When a hydrate is heated, the water molecules evaporate. The hydrate is now called an anhydrate or andhydrous salt it no longer contains water.

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To begin, determine the oxidation numbers of each element in each half‑reaction. For the reduction step of the first reaction, the oxidation number of manganese changes from +7 to+4 . MnO−4⟶MnO2 Next, balance the atoms of each half‑reaction. Balance every element other than oxygen or hydrogen first....

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Assign the oxidation states to all species in the equation. In the most compounds, oxygen has an oxidation state of −2 and hydrogen has an oxidation state of +1. Au0H+1N+5O−23H+1Cl−1H+1Au+3Cl−14N+4O−22H+12O−2 The oxidation state of gold changes from 0 to +3, so it is oxidized. The oxidation state of...

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Cr in Cr has oxidation state of 0 Cr in CrO4-2 has oxidation state of +6 So, Cr in Cr is oxidised to CrO4-2 This means Cr is reducing agent Fe in Fe+3 has oxidation state of +3 Fe in Fe+2 has oxidation state of +2 So, Fe in Fe+3 is reduced to Fe+2 This means Fe+3 is oxidising agent Reduction half ce...

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The higher the electronegativity the greater the pull an oxidizing agent has for electrons. The higher the pull for electrons the stronger the oxidizing agent. So the element with the highest electronegativity is the strongest oxidizing agent.

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The reaction at the anode is oxidation and that at the cathode is reduction. The electrons are supplied by the species getting oxidized. The Anode is the negative or reducing electrode that releases electrons to the external circuit and oxidizes during and electrochemical reaction. The Cathode is th...

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Oxidation numbers represent the potential charge of an atom in its ionic state. If an atom's oxidation number decreases in a reaction, it is reduced. If an atom's oxidation number increases, it is oxidized. The original meaning of oxidation was “adding oxygen,” so when oxygen is added to a molecule,...

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So to identify an oxidizing agent, simply look at the oxidation number of an atom before and after the reaction. If the oxidation number is greater in the product, then it lost electrons and the substance was oxidized. If the oxidation number is less, then it gained electrons and was reduced.

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In chemistry, entropy is represented by the capital letter S, and it is a thermodynamic function that describes the randomness and disorder of molecules based on the number of different arrangements available to them in a given system or reaction.

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Generally, a positive change in enthalpy is required to break a bond, while a negative change in enthalpy is accompanied by the formation of a bond. In other words, breaking a bond is an endothermic process, while the formation of bonds is exothermic.

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If a system is at equilibrium, ΔG = 0. If the process is spontaneous, ΔG < 0. If the process is not spontaneous as written, but is spontaneous in the reverse direction, ΔG > 0.

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The internal energy U of our system can be thought of as the sum of all the kinetic energies of the individual gas molecules. Similarly, if the temperature T of the gas decreases, the gas molecules slow down, and the internal energy U of the gas decreases (which means Δ U \Delta U ΔU is negative). S...

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There are two ways this can happen. One is if the system does some work, or has some work done on it. As an example, we can change the energy of a spring by stretching it. The other way in which the energy of a system can change is if its temperature is different from that of its surroundings.

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The first step is to determine the value of the molar heat capacity at constant volume (CV,m) for this gas. Ar(g) is a monatomic gas. Therefore, according to the table, CV, m=3/2R The value of heat (q) can then be found via the equation q = n ×CV, m×ΔT where n is the number of moles and ΔT Tis the c...

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The higher the bond enthalpy, the more energy is needed to break the bond and the stronger the bond. To determine how much energy will be released when we form a new bond rather than break it, we simply make the bond enthalpy value negative

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A system that does work on the surroundings has a negative value for work, w. Work can be expressed as w=−PΔV or w=−ΔnRT where ΔV and Δn are positive if there is an increase in the number of moles of gas as the reaction proceeds. The other terms (P, T, and R) always have positive values. These react...

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The reason why more work is done in a reversible process than an irreversible process is in an irreversible process entropy is generated within the gas whereas in a reversible process entropy is not generated.

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The work, w , of an isothermal, reversible expansion of an ideal gas is calculated using the equation w =−nRT(ln(VfinalVinitial)) where n is the moles of gas in the container, T is the temperature, R is the ideal gas constant equal to 8.314 J⋅mol−1⋅K−1 , V final is the final volume of the cylinder, ...

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Yes, A closed system allows only energy transfer but no transfer of mass.

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An open system can exchange both matter and energy with its surroundings. A pot of boiling water is an open system because a burner supplies energy in the form of heat, and matter in the form of water vapor is lost as the water boils. A closed system can exchange energy but not matter with its surro...

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Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object by 1oC. The specific heat of a substance is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of the substance by 1oC.

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An isolated system is one that cannot exchange either matter or energy with its surroundings.

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Q = heat evolved (equal to heat absorbed − heat released) in joules (J)

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In a closed system, the matter within the system is constant but, energy is allowed to be transferred from system to surroundings and vice versa. In an isolated system, neither matter nor energy transfer between a system and its surroundings are allowed.

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For condensation the molecules are giving up their heat energy. When molecules give up heat energy, it is called exothermic. Condensation would be exothermic.

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Sublimation is an endothermic phase transition that occurs at temperatures and pressures below the triple point of a chemical in the phase diagram.

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At any particular temperature, we define the standard state of any liquid or solid substance to be the most stable form of that substance at a pressure of one bar. For example, for water at −10 C, the standard state is ice at a pressure of one bar; at +10 C, it is liquid water at a pressure of one b...

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Yes, Because at that temperature the amount of extra heat which is being supplied to the substance is used in Breaking the intermolecular forces so the temperature remains constant and the until the state of matter changes the heat is used to break intermolecular forces and hence after the breaking ...

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Heat is a transfer of energy due to a temperature difference. Enthalpy is the change in amount of heat in a system at constant pressure. You can only use heat and enthalpy interchangeably if there is no work being done to the system.

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Cp: In a system, Cp is the amount of heat energy released or absorbed by a unit mass of the substance with the change in temperature at a constant pressure. ... So, Cp represents the molar heat capacity, C when pressure is constant. The change in temperature will always cause a change in the enthalp...

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Vapour is a mixture of two or more different phases at room temperature, these phases are liquid and gaseous phase. Gas usually contains a single thermodynamic state at room temperature. Vapour has a collection of particles without any definite shape when observed under a microscope However, for the...

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So, for a process carried out at constant pressure, if the heat added to the system is positive (endothermic), ΔH is positive and if the heat added to the system is negative (exothermic, heat removed from system), ΔH is negative.

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So, for a process carried out at constant pressure, if the heat added to the system is positive (endothermic), ΔH is positive and if the heat added to the system is negative (exothermic, heat removed from system), ΔH is negative.

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So, for a process carried out at constant pressure, if the heat added to the system is positive (endothermic), ΔH is positive and if the heat added to the system is negative (exothermic, heat removed from system), ΔH is negative.

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A decrease in temperature shifts the reaction to the product side. In an endothermic reaction, heat is absorbed by the reaction, so an increase in temperature will shift to the product side. A decrease in temperature for an endothermic reaction will shift to the reactant side.

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A positive change in enthalpy indicates an endothermic reaction. For endothermic reactions, an increase in temperature causes an increase in K. The reaction quotient is not affected by the temperature change, since there is no change in concentrations. Thus, Q <K, and the net reaction is toward prod...

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If Q<K , then the reaction favors the products. The ratio of products to reactants is less than that for the system at equilibrium—the concentration or the pressure of the reactants is greater than the concentration or pressure of the products. Because the reaction tends toward reach equilibrium, th...

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The difference between Kp and Kc is as follows - Kp is the equilibrium constant with respect to the atmospheric pressure and Kc is the equilibrium constant with respect to the molar concentration of the gaseous mixture.

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Q can be used to determine which direction a reaction will shift to reach equilibrium. If K > Q, a reaction will proceed forward, converting reactants into products. If K < Q, the reaction will proceed in the reverse direction, converting products into reactants. If Q = K then the system is already ...

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Pure solids or liquids are excluded from the equilibrium expression because their effective concentrations stay constant throughout the reaction. The concentration of a pure liquid or solid equals its density divided by its molar mass.

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An acid is a substance that donates protons (in the Brønsted-Lowry definition) or accepts a pair of valence electrons to form a bond (in the Lewis definition). A base is a substance that can accept protons or donate a pair of valence electrons to form a bond. Bases can be thought of as the chemical ...

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Strong acids dissociate fully in water to produce the maximum number of H + ions. This means that the pH values of strong acids are lower than that of weak acids, which explains why the rate of reaction of strong acids with substances (such as metals, metal carbonates etc) is higher than that of wea...

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As Cl is most electronegative out of Cl,Br,I, it will make the Cl−O bond more polar and weaker compared to Br and I.

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The pKa value is one method used to indicate the strength of an acid. pKa is the negative log of the acid dissociation constant or Ka value. A lower pKa value indicates a stronger acid. That is, the lower value indicates the acid more fully dissociates in water

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The prefixes are only applied to ligands attached to the elements inside of the brackets, so you don't need to put the di- in front of chloride.

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An acid ionizes to produce H+ and its conjugate base, so the acid is HSO−4. Next, determine a conjugate base that balances this equation in both mass and charge. So that answer would be SO4 with a -2 charge.

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The common shapes for coordination number 4 are tetrahedral and square planar. The common shape for coordination number 6 is octahedral. A trigonal bipyramidal shape is associated with a coordination number of 5. Therefore, it is not possible for coordination numbers 4 or 6. The other shapes listed ...

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For this particular problem, the lone pair of each atom does not contribute to polarity in this question. Since this is based on the shape of the structure form, a non-polar structure is formed.

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Hello! Coordination number is the number of donor atoms that are bonded to the metal. And en is ethylenediamine which is a bidentate molecule. A bidentate molecule would change the number of bonds a Central atom from 1 to 2 because they bind in 2 separate places. So the coordination number of [Cd(en...

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Hello!

Bond angles are just determined by the VSEPR shape of the structure, which you can just determine through a chart or on the internet.

Hope this helps!

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Hello, for this problem, the hydrogen atoms of H2CCH2 and H2CCCCH2 all lie in the same plane, but the hydrogen atoms of H2CCCH2 are perpendicular to one another. This is because the C=C π bonds of H2CCCH2 are perpendicular to one another. Conversely, the terminal C=C π bonds of H2CCCCH2 are parallel...

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A Sigma bond is a chemical bond formed by the linear or co-axial overlapping of the atomic orbitals of two atoms. A pi bond is a type of covalent bond that exists between atoms where the electrons are on top and bottom of the axis connecting the nuclei of the joined atoms. If it is a single bond, it...

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Knowing the formal charge on a particular atom in a structure is an important part of keeping track of the electrons and is important for establishing and predicting the reactivity. The formal charge on an atom in a molecule reflects the electron count associated with the atom compared to the isolat...

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A dipole-dipole force is when the positive side of a polar molecule attracts the negative side of another polar molecule. An ion-dipole force is a force between an ion and a polar molecule.

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For electronegativity, you can just look at periodic trends. On the periodic table, electronegativity generally increases as you move from left to right across a period and decreases as you move down a group. As a result, the most electronegative elements are found on the top right of the periodic t...

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If the intermolecular forces between molecules are: relatively strong, the boiling point will be relatively high. Therefore, if the bonding force is relatively weak, the boiling point will be relatively low. From strongest to weakest, the order goes: ion-dipole, hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole, and ...

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Intramolecular forces are the forces that hold atoms together within a molecule. Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between molecules. Intermolecular forces are categorized into dipole-dipole forces, London dispersion forces, and hydrogen bonding forces. Intramolecular forces are categorize...

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he hydrogen atoms of H2CCH2 and H2CCCCH2 all lie in the same plane, but the hydrogen atoms of H2CCCH2 are perpendicular to one another. This is because the C=C π bonds of H2CCCH2 are perpendicular to one another. Conversely, the terminal C=C π bonds of H2CCCCH2 are parallel to one another, so the hy...

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In larger atoms, valence electrons are farther away from the nucleus; an increased distance results in a decrease in attraction between the nucleus and electrons. Therefore, the ability of the atom to attract valence electrons decreases, resulting in a lower electronegativity.

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Larger and heavier atoms and molecules exhibit stronger dispersion forces than smaller and lighter ones. In a larger atom or molecule, the valence electrons are, on average, farther from the nuclei than in a smaller atom or molecule. As a result, F has more electrons than O, HF would have greater Lo...

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The type of hybrid orbitals used by phosphorus depends on the number of hybrid orbitals needed. To accommodate three‑bonded atoms and one lone pair, as in PCl3, P4O6, and P4, four hybrid orbitals are needed. One s orbital and three p orbitals can combine to form four sp3 hybrid orbitals. To accommod...

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General rules for oxidation number: - A neutral element that is not part of a compound has an oxidation state of zero. - Monoatomic ions have oxidation states equal to their ionic charges. - The sum of the oxidation states in any formula is equal to the overall charge on that formula. - Oxygen tends...

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Hydrogen bonds are a particularly strong form of dipole-dipole interaction that occurs between a hydrogen atom, H, that is directly bonded to a nitrogen, N, oxygen, O, or fluorine, F, atom and a N, O, or F atom in another molecule.

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London forces are stronger in larger, heavier molecules. In addition, London forces are stronger between molecules with greater surface area. Therefore, linear molecules will have stronger London forces than more compact molecules with the same mass.

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Each nitrogen atom has one unshared pair of electrons and can form one hydrogen bond, for a total of two hydrogen bonds. The oxygen atom has two unshared pairs of electrons and can form two hydrogen bonds with hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom bonded to nitrogen can form a hydrogen bond with an oxy...

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Hydrogen bonding occurs in liquids and solutions whenever a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to a nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine atom. HF is the only hydrogen halide that remains covalently bonded in water, and is also the only one in which the hydrogen is bonded to nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. A...

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The central atom is typically the least electronegative atom, but is never hydrogen. For CH2O, carbon is less electronegative than oxygen, making C the central atom.CH2O contains a C atom, which has four valence electrons, two H atoms, each with one valence electron, and an O atom with six valence e...

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The formal charge on an atom in a Lewis structure is determined using the equation formal charge=(number valence e− in free atom)−(number nonbonding e−)−12(number bonding e−) The sum of the formal charges in a structure should be equal to the overall charge on the formula, which in this case is zero...

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The nitrite ion, NO−2, consists of one N=O bond and one N−O bond. The oxygen atom in the latter bond has a formal charge of −1. There is also a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom. The nitrate ion, NO−3, consists of one N=O bond and two N−O bonds. The oxygen atoms of the N−O bonds each have ...

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Lewis acids accept electrons in chemical reactions, whereas Lewis bases donate electrons. Metal cations such as Na+ accept electrons in Lewis acid–Lewis base reactions. Molecules with electron‑deficient central atoms, such as BF3, can accept electrons. Molecules with polar double bonds also accept e...

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If two elements are close in proximity to each other on the periodic table, they are more likely to have similar electronegativities. As elements get further apart on the periodic table, the difference in electronegativities increases. A large electronegativity difference leads to an ionic bond. A s...

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Hi! Basically, to go about this problem, you would have to find the minimum uncertainty in an electron's velocity by rearranging the uncertainty equation to solve for Δv. Δv ≥ h/(4pi x m x Δx) Planck's constant is 6.626×10–34 J·s and the mass of an electron is 9.109×10–28 g or 9.109×10–31 kg. Conver...

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Basically, when an electron temporarily occupies an energy state greater than its ground state, it is in an excited state. An electron can become excited if it is given extra energy, such as if it absorbs a photon, or packet of light, or collides with a nearby atom or particle. To solve this problem...

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Hi! Before I help you out here are some rules to help you solve these problems in the future: - The size of an atom or ion is dictated by how far the outermost electrons are from the nucleus - As effective nuclear charge increases, the electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus, and the radius decre...

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Hi So basically, that is the shorthand (or noble gas notation) of an element. To write in noble gas notation, simply start with the symbol of the noble gas in the previous period in brackets (like [Ne] for example), followed by the additional configuration of the electrons for the given element So i...

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Hi! I believe I can help with this. So basically, first you need to determine whether the observed line is Lyman or Balmer series. . Because the observed violet line is in the visible region of the spectra, this line belongs to the Balmer series and has n1 = 2. Then you can use the Rydberg equation ...

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Hello! 1. Start by determining the amount of energy needed to melt the given mass of ice. The enthalpy of fusion of water at 0 ∘C is 333.6 J/g. This means that it requires 333.6 J of heat energy to melt 1 g of ice. Multiply the enthalpy of fusion by the mass of ice to determine how much energy it ta...

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Hello! And yes writing electron configuration in order is important for identifying the element. When writing an electron configuration, first write the energy level (the period), then the subshell to be filled, and the superscript, which is the number of electrons in that subshell. https://www.chem...

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From an electron state configuration, the number of electrons in a neutral atom is equal to the atomic number. According to the periodic table, the element with the atomic number 7 is nitrogen, N. When writing the ground-state electron configuration, the orbitals are filled starting with the lowest ...

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Hello! I would first start by using the equation Ephoton = hc/λ, here h is Planck's constant (6.626×10−34 J·s), c is the speed of light (2.998×108 m/s) and λ is the wavelength in meters. Convert the given wavelength from centimeters to meters before doing so. Then, to determine the number of photons...

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Hello! Basically, the p orbital is the orbital of an electron shell in an atom in which the electrons have the second-lowest energy. A p orbital is shaped like 2 identical balloons tied together at the nucleus, so there are 2p orbitals. A p orbital has three orientations (represented by a __ line) a...

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The amplitude of a wave is important because the amplitude can indicate how much energy is in the wave. A high amplitude wave is a high-energy wave, and a low-amplitude wave is a low-energy wave. We can apply this to the real world when we look at sound and light. In the case of sound waves, a high ...

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Hello!

In that equation, c is a fundamental physical constant that represents the speed of light that all forms of electromagnetic radiation, such as visible light, ultraviolet, or microwaves, travels in a vacuum. The constant is roughly equal to 2.998×10^8 m/s.

Hope this helps!

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Hello! You can start this problem with the equation E photon=hc/λ Then, we can start plugging in values where h equals Plancks constant (6.626×10−34 J·s) and c equals the speed of light (3.00 x 10^8 m/s) Then convert the given wavelength, in this case, 2.20×10−4 cm, into meters. Which I believe is 2...

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Hello, I think question two is one of the scenarios where the statement is false because neither of them is faster than the other. If you recall from the lecture, we were taught that the speed of light is signified with the variable, c, and is equal to 3.00 x 10^8 m/s. By that logic, all light trave...

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Hello! For this problem consider the fact that electromagnetic energy is quantized in units of photons. Therefore, each photon helps to contribute to the overall energy. Additionally, one thing to remember is that the wavelength (λ) and frequency (v)are set properties of the pulse of light. So that ...

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Hello! And basically, Dr. Lavelle was describing the way wavelength (λ) is measured. When a wavelength is drawn, we see that it has several "peaks" when it reaches its maximum height (when the line is concaved down.) When we say "peak to peak" we are referring to the length betwe...

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Hello! And yes! Percent composition can be a decimal. However, I would make it the appropriate amount of sig figs, depending on the numbers given. Also regarding the whole numbers, I think you're thinking of calculating empirical and molecular formulas (in which case those do have to be whole number...

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The atomic weight of any atom can be found by multiplying the abundance of an isotope of an element by the atomic mass of the element and then adding the results together. This equation can be used with elements with two or more isotopes. Molar mass, on the other hand, is the mass of the substance (...

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